Eight Causes of Earthquakes

And the Buddha said: “Ānanda, there are eight causes of, or conditions leading to, great earthquakes. They are:

1. This great earth is supported by water, the water by air, the air by space. When very strong winds blow, the water is shaken. When the water is shaken, the earth is shaken. This is the first cause of, or the first condition leading to, great earthquakes.

2. Further, Ānanda, an ascetic or Brahmin who has great mental power, and who is accomplished in the supernormal powers of the mind, or a Deva of great power, by developing intense concentration on the limited image of the earth element and on the boundless image of the water-element can cause the earth to shake strongly, to sway violently, and to convulse. This is the second cause of, or the second condition leading to, great earthquakes.

3. Further, Ānanda, on the occasion of a Bodhisatta passing away in the Tusita realm and descending into the mother’s womb, mindfully and with clear comprehension, this great earth shakes, quakes strongly, sways violently, and is convulsed. This is the third cause of, or the third condition leading to, great earthquakes.

4. Further, Ānanda, on the occasion of a Bodhisatta being born, mindfully and with clear comprehension, this great earth shakes, quakes strongly, sways violently, and is convulsed. This is the fourth cause of, or the fourth condition leading to, great earthquakes.

5. Further, Ānanda, on the occasion of a Buddha attaining supremely Perfect Awakening, this great earth shakes, quakes strongly, sways violently, and is convulsed. This is the fifth cause of, or the fifth condition leading to, great earthquakes.

6. Further, Ānanda, on the occasion of a Buddha expounding the Supreme Dhamma on the four noble truths, the first discourse known as the Discourse setting the Dhamma Wheel Turning (Dhamma-cakkappavattana-sutta, SN 56.11), the great earth shakes, quakes strongly, sways violently, and is convulsed. This is the sixth cause of, or the sixth condition leading to, great earthquakes.

7. Further, Ānanda, on the occasion of a Buddha relinquishing mindfully and with deliberation, the life-maintaining mental process, this great earth shakes, quakes strongly, sways violently and is convulsed. This is the seventh cause of, or the seventh condition leading to, great earthquakes.

8. Further, Ānanda, on the occasion of a Buddha passing away leaving no remainder of the five aggregates and enters upon Parinibbāna, realizing the ultimate peace, this great earth shakes, quakes strongly, sways violently, and is convulsed. This is the eighth cause of, or the eighth condition leading to, great earthquakes.

Ānanda, these are the eight causes of, or the eight conditions leading to great earthquakes.”

Some elaboration on the above eight factors:

1. Earthquakes occur due to the unstable conditions of the elements of the cosmos. The great earth is supported by a mass of air which is 960,000 leagues thick. Above that mass of air, there is a mass of water which is 480,000 leagues thick. Above that mass of water lies the great earth which is 240,000 leagues thick. The lower half of the thickness, 120,000 leagues, of the earth is granite while the upper half of [1031] the same thickness is earth.

When the elements become unstable and powerful winds blow across the surface of the normal mass of air, the mass of air is temporarily displaced so that its support of the mass of water is withdrawn. The mass of water then drops abruptly, leading to a sudden drop of the mass of the great earth. When the extraordinarily strong winds become calm again, the mass of air returns to its normal level, resumes its function of supporting the mass of water, and rises up again. This leads to the rising up of the great earth. Thus, strong winds that blow due to unstable conditions of the elements are the causes of earthquakes. This phenomena is present all the time, occurring occasionally. This sudden falling and rising of the earth is not noticed because of the thickness of the great earth.

2. Earthquakes due to powerful persons: Persons possessed of psychic power can cause earthquakes by means of that power. The method they employ is by entering into absorption (jhāna), with water as the object of concentration and thereby causing the upheaval of the great earth. They cause the earthquake for some noble purpose, just as Ven. Mahā Moggallāna caused the Vejayanta pinnacled mansion of Sakka to shake for the purpose of arousing spiritual urgency in others; and novice Saṅgharakkhita also did the same thing to inquire after something.

Novice Saṅgharakkhita

Novice Saṅgharakkhita, the nephew of Ven. Mahānāga, was a remarkable novice who became an Arahat even while his head was being shaved at the time of entering into the Saṅgha. He reflected whether there had appeared before, any monastic who could cause the Vejayanta mansion of Sakka to shake, and seeing none, he attempted to do it. But he could not do it. Seeing his attempt fail, the Devakaññā who belonged to the group of dancers at Sakka’s palace ridiculed him. “Son, you are too young to try to do such a thing; this Vejayanta mansion is too strong for you,” they said to him.

Novice Saṅgharakkhita bethought himself: “I am being ridiculed by these Devakaññā because I lack proper instruction from a teacher.” And so, he considered where his preceptor Ven. Sāmuddika Mahānāga could be found, and knowing that the latter was spending the day in a cave underneath the great ocean, he went there and stood in worshipful posture before the elder.

“So you failed to shake the Vejayanta mansion because you joined battle even before you had learned how to fight,” said the elder.

“Venerable sir, I have not received any instructions from an able teacher,” the novice said.

“Son, if such a person of psychic power as yourself cannot shake the Vejayanta mansion, who else could? Now then, you have seen some dried piece of cowdung floating along the surface of water, haven’t you? And remember, son, how the pancake maker retrieves her pancake from the frying pan by tearing off its edges first. Mark this example.” These were the elliptical words from the teacher. “That is instruction enough, venerable sir,” the novice said.

Then he made the wish: “Let the Vejayanta mansion be surrounded by water.” And the novice went to where the Vejayanta mansion stood. On seeing him return, the Devakaññā remarked: “Here he comes again, not satisfied with his disgrace. Yes, he is here again!”

When Sakka heard them, he said to them: “Do not ridicule my son. He has received instruction from an able teacher. He will shake the mansion now.” Novice Saṅgharakkhita then touched the outside beam of the Vejayanta mansion with his big toe. The mansion swayed in all the four directions, sideways as well as back and forth. Thereupon the Devakaññā cried: “Son, please stop! Leave the great mansion alone!”

Novice Saṅgharakkhita then let the Vejayanta mansion stand in its place, and standing above it, uttered the following three verses in ecstatic joy (DA PTS 2.560):

Ajjevāhaṁ pabbajito, ajja pattāsavakkhayaṁ, ajja kampemi pāsādaṁ, aho Buddhassuḷāratā. Ajjevāhaṁ pabbajito, ajja pattāsavakkhayaṁ, ajja kampemi pāsādaṁ, aho Dhammassuḷāratā. Ajjevāhaṁ pabbajito, ajja pattāsavakkhayaṁ, ajja kampemi pāsādaṁ, aho Saṅghassuḷāratā.

Just today I have become a monastic. I have today became an Arahat even as my [1032] head was being shaved. And today, I have been able to shake Sakka’s mansion, having received instruction from my teacher. Excellent and marvellous indeed is the Buddha, the Perfectly Self-Awakened One. Excellent and marvellous indeed is the Dhamma, that truly leads to emancipation. Excellent and marvellous indeed is the Saṅgha, the noble ones (ariya)!

3. The third cause, the conception of a Buddha to be, and the fourth cause, the birth of a Buddha to be, are due to the superb merit of the Bodhisatta.

5. The fifth cause, the occasion of Awakening, is due to the power of the penetrative knowledge of the Buddha.

6. The sixth cause, the occasion of delivering the first discourse, is due to the power of the knowledge consisting in the power of exposition of the Buddha. On this great occasion, the guardian spirit of the great earth, showing his appreciation is figuratively said to be applauding by the great earth, according to the commentary.

7. The seventh cause is due to the power of the Buddha-knowledge in relinquishing the life-maintaining mental process, out of weariness with sentient existence which is conditioned. On this great occasion, the guardian spirit of the earth sympathized with the Buddha in the matter of decay and death which is incumbent on everyone, not excepting the Buddha, and showed his sympathy by the great earthquake.

8. The eighth cause is due to the power of the Buddha’s knowledge that makes the Buddha very happy with the delightful satisfaction in having accomplished his mission that had taken him four immeasurable periods (asaṅkhyeyya) and 100,000 aeons (kappa) for attainment of perfect peace (anupādisesa-nibbāna). As for the guardian spirit of the earth, it was an occasion for grief and lamentation. The great earthquake then is an expression of his grief and lamentation.

Eight Categories of Assemblies

When the Buddha discoursed on the eight causes of great earthquakes, Ven. Ānanda, being of great wisdom, rightly concluded that the Buddha had relinquished the life-maintaining mental process that very day. The fact is Ven. Ānanda’s appraisal of the situation was known to the Buddha but he did not allow Ven. Ānanda to disrupt the discourse, and continued with other topics, such as the eight categories of assemblies, the eight means of mind mastery, and the eight liberations.

There are certain commentators who explain this action on the part of the Buddha, as his strategy of alleviating the sorrow that would arise in Ven. Ānanda, if the fact of the relinquishing of the life-maintaining mental process were to be allowed to come to the surface. The fresh topics that the Buddha takes up without interrupting are thus meant to occupy Ven. Ānanda’s mind with matters other than the Buddha’s oncoming passing.

“Ānanda,” said the Buddha, “there are eight categories of assemblies. There are: the assembly of nobles, the assembly of Brahmins, the assembly of householders, the assembly of monastics, the assembly of the Devas of the realm of the Four Great Kings, the assembly of the Tāvatiṁsa Devas, the assembly of the Devas led by Māra, the assembly of Brahmas.

Ānanda, I remember having attended hundreds of assemblies of nobles. In those assemblies, I sat together with them, conversed with them, and had discussions with them. While I was among them, my appearance was like their appearance and my voice was like their voice. In my discourses to them, I pointed out to them the benefits of the doctrine, exhorted them to be established in the practice of the Dhamma, and gladdened them in the practice. While I was thus discoursing to them, they did not know me. They wondered: ‘Who is this one discoursing? Is he a Deva or a man?’ After I, by my discourse, had pointed out to them the benefits of the Dhamma, and gladdened them in the practice, I vanished from there. When I vanished too, they still did not know me; and wondered: ‘Who was [1032] that who has vanished now? Was he a Deva or a man?’

Ānanda, I remember having attended hundreds of assemblies of Brahmins … householders … monastics … Devas of the realm of the Four Great Kings … Tāvatiṁsa Devas … Devas led by Māra … I remember having attended hundreds of assemblies of Brahmas. In those assemblies, I sat together with them, conversed with them, and had discussions with them. While I was among them, my appearance was like their appearance and my voice was like their voice. In my discourses to them, I pointed out to them the benefits of the doctrine, exhorted them to be established in the practice of the Dhamma, and gladdened them in the practice. While I was thus discoursing to them, they did not know me. They wondered: ‘Who is this one discoursing? Is he a Deva or a man?’ After I had, by my discourse, pointed out to them the benefits of the Dhamma, and gladdened them in the practice, I vanished from there. When I vanished too, they still did not know me; and wondered: ‘Who was [1032] that who has vanished now? Was he a Deva or a man?’ Ānanda, these are the categories of assemblies.”

Some examples of the great many assemblies of nobles are: The first meeting with King Bimbisāra after the Buddha had attained Awakening; the Buddha’s first visit to Kapilavatthu and meeting with his kinsmen; the Buddha’s meeting with Licchavī princes as told in Sunakkhatta’s story; and Saccaka’s story. Such meetings with nobles took place also in other world-elements, it should be presumed.

“My appearance was like their appearance,” means not the colour of the skin, but the form, for nobles had various colours of skin, some white, some black, some dark tan. As regards the form, the Buddha did not assume any particular guise, but retained his own self. Only the onlookers, the nobles, regarded them as one of them.

This reminds one of the traditional presentation of the Buddha image in royal attire with reference to his taming of Jambupati.

“My voice was like their voice” means the language that the Buddha used in speaking at the particular assembly. Regarding the voice itself, the Buddha had a voice like that of the lord of Brahmas, a voice replete with eight marvellous qualities. When the Buddha happened to be seated on a throne, the audience would think that their king was speaking in a sweet voice. Only after he had finished the discourse and left the assembly, then the audience could see their real king and they were left wondering: “Who was there sitting on the throne, who talked to us in Māgadhī on the Dhamma in such a sweet voice, and who is gone now? Was he a Deva or was he a man?” They did not know that it was the Buddha.

It might be asked: “Why did the Buddha discourse on the Dhamma to those who did not recognize him? What benefit did he see there?” The answer is: The Buddha taught them to prepare the ground for their Awakening later.

Here’s the explanation: Although those hearers of the Dhamma did not recognize the Buddha and did not take a real interest in the Dhamma, since the Dhamma is replete with the excellent qualities such as being well-delivered (svākkhāto), hearing it will serve as a necessary condition for Awakening in the future to gain the paths and fruitions.

As regards the great many assemblies of Brahmins, we have examples in the Buddha’s encounters with Soṇadanta, Kūṭadanta, and so on. Similar assemblies of Brahmins in the other [1034] world-elements can also be presumed to have taken place.

It might be asked: “What benefit did the Fortunate One see in discoursing on the eight categories of assemblies?” The answer is: The Buddha discoursed on the eight categories of assemblies to illustrate the fact that he was fearless.

Here’s the explanation: After describing the eight categories of assemblies, the Buddha continued: “Ānanda, in going amongst those eight assemblies, the Realised One had no fear. That being so, how could anyone say that the Realised One was afraid of Māra who came to him alone? Ānanda, in relinquishing the life-maintaining mental process, the Realised One did so fearlessly, with mindfulness and clear comprehension.”

These words are contained in the Miscellaneous Teaching on the Dhamma (Pakiṇṇaka-dhamma-desanā) which was not recited at the Great Council but was quoted by the commentaries.

Eight Ways of Mastery of the Mind

Then the Buddha continued his discourse without break thus: “Ānanda, there are eight ways of mind mastery (abhibhāyatana-jhāna), and overcoming the opposite phenomena and sense objects, that is, the hindrances that mar clear mental vision. These are:

1. Someone with an excellent mental capacity or intelligence, after having gained concentration at the preliminary or preparatory level on the colour of certain parts of his own body, concentrates his mind on small external forms of his choice (kasiṇa), which may be either unblemished or blemished. His mind gets fixed on these forms, gains mastery over them and he thus dwells in absorption (appanā-jhāna). After emerging from that absorption, he is aware that he knows and sees these forms. This is the first mind mastery (abhibhāyatana-jhāna).

2. Some other person with an excellent mental capacity or intelligence, after having gained the preliminary concentration on the colour of certain parts of his own body, concentrates his mind on big external forms (kasiṇa), which may be either unblemished or blemished. His mind gets fixed on these big objects, gains mastery over them, and he thus dwells in absorption. After emerging from that absorption, he is aware that he knows and sees these forms. This is the second mind mastery.

3. Some other person with an excellent mental capacity or intelligence, without taking the colour of any part of his body as an object of preliminary concentration, concentrates on small external objects (kasiṇa), which may be either unblemished or blemished, as objects of preliminary concentration. His mind duly gets fixed on these small forms (kasiṇa), gains mastery over them, and he thus dwells in absorption. After emerging from that absorption, he is aware that he knows and sees these forms. This is the third mind mastery.

4. Some other person with an excellent mental capacity or intelligence, without taking the colour of his body as an object of preliminary concentration, concentrates on big external forms (kasiṇa), which may be either unblemished or blemished, as objects of preliminary concentration. His mind duly gets fixed on these big forms, gains mastery over them, and he thus dwells in absorption. After emerging from that absorption, he is aware that he knows and sees these forms. This is the fourth mind mastery.

5. Some other person with an excellent mental capacity or intelligence, without taking the colour of his body as an object of preliminary concentration, concentrates on external forms (kasiṇa) that are dark blue, with a dark blue colour, dark blue hue, like the flax-blossom which is dark blue, with a dark blue colour, dark blue hue, or like Bārāṇasī fabric with a smooth finish on both sides, which is dark blue and has a dark blue colour, dark blue hue. He concentrates on external forms that are dark blue, with a dark blue colour, dark blue hue, as objects of preliminary concentration. His mind duly gets fixed on them, gains mastery over them, and he thus dwells in absorption. After emerging from that absorption, he is aware that he knows and sees these forms. This is the fifth mind mastery.

6. Some other person with an excellent mental capacity or intelligence, without taking the colour of his body as an [1035] object of preliminary concentration, concentrates on external forms (kasiṇa) that are yellow, with a yellow colour, yellow hue, or like Bārāṇasī fabric with a smooth finish on both sides, which is yellow and has a yellow colour, yellow hue. He concentrates on these external forms that are yellow, with a yellow colour, yellow hue, as objects of preliminary concentration. His mind duly gets fixed on them, gains mastery over them, and he thus dwells in absorption. After emerging from that absorption, he is aware that he knows and sees these forms. This is the sixth mind mastery.

7.Some other person with an excellent mental capacity or intelligence, without taking the colour of his body as an object of preliminary concentration, concentrates on external forms (kasiṇa) that are red, with a red colour, red hue, like a flower of the Noon Flower tree (bandhu-jīvaka) which is red, with a red colour, red hue, or like Bārāṇasī fabric with a smooth finish on both sides, which is red and has a red colour, red hue. He concentrates on these external forms that are red, with a red colour, red hue, as objects of preliminary concentration. His mind duly gets fixed on them, gains mastery over them, and he thus dwells in absorption. After emerging from that absorption, he is aware that he knows and sees these forms. This is the seventh mind mastery.

8.Some other person with an excellent mental capacity or intelligence, without taking the colour of his body as an object of preliminary concentration, concentrates on external forms (kasiṇa) that are white, with a white colour, white hue, like the morning star which is white, with a white colour, white hue, or like Bārāṇasī fabric with a smooth finish on both sides which is white and has a white colour, white hue. He concentrates on these external forms that are white, with a white colour, white hue, as objects of preliminary concentration. His mind duly gets fixed on them, gains mastery over them, and he thus dwells in absorption. After emerging from that absorption, he is aware that he knows and sees these forms. This is the eighth mind mastery.

Mind mastery (abhibhāyatana-jhāna): Abhibhū, means overcoming opposite external states such as hindrances; and is a state of ecstatic bliss (jhāna). It is the meditation that is possible for those with very sharp intellect who can achieve concentration quickly and thereby overcome all hindrances, and who are able to deal with either a small object or a big object of meditation, and gain mastery over it without difficulty.

To achieve mind mastery (abhibhāyatana-jhāna), a yogi may begin the preliminary or preparatory concentration by taking an internal form, such as concentrating on a certain part of his own body or an external form.

If he begins with an internal form he may choose any one of the four colours, dark blue, yellow, red or white, that consist in the various parts of his own body. For example, if he concentrates on the dark blue colour, he may concentrate on either his hair, or bile, or the pupil of the eye and impress his mind with the dark blue colour, thinking: “Dark blue, dark blue.” If he concentrates on the yellow colour, he may concentrate on either the fat, the skin, the top of the hand, or the top of the foot, or the yellowish surface of the eye-ball and impress his mind with the yellow colour, thinking: “Yellow, yellow.” If he concentrates on the red colour, he may concentrate on either the flesh, the blood, the tongue, or the reddish surface of the eye-ball and impress his mind with the red colour, thinking: “Red, red.” If he concentrates on the white colour, he may concentrate on either the bone, the teeth, the finger nails, toe nails, or the whitish surface of the eye-ball, and impress his mind with the white colour, thinking: “White, white.”

Internal forms can help set up only the preliminary concentration (parikamma), and not the full concentration (appanā-bhāvanā). The after-image or reflex image that the yogi obtains after achieving the preliminary concentration is sometimes not sufficiently clear. To get the necessary unblemished reflex image (paṭibhāga-nimitta), the yogi has to shift his object of meditation from an internal form to an external form. Then only can he get the desired sign or reflex image that can upgrade his concentration till he attains access concentration (upacāra) and full concentration (appanā) by stages. [1036]

The yogi, who begins the preliminary concentration by taking an external form as an object of meditation, can fulfil all the three stages of concentration: the preliminary stage (parikamma-bhāvanā), the threshold stage (upacāra-bhāvanā) and the absorption stage (appanā-bhāvanā).

The objects of concentration may either be small or large. For the yogi who can achieve mind mastery (abhibhāyatana-jhāna) is of very keen intellect so that he does not find any difficulty on account of the size of the object of concentration. It is like that of a person of good appetite who can eat a small amount or a big amount without difficulty. Whether the object of concentration is small or big, the yogi of this calibre achieves access concentration quickly and then immediately attains absorption (appanā-jhāna), thus overcoming all opposing mental states such as hindrances.

Regarding the first four of the eight mind masteries, a small form as object of concentration is suitable for yogis who are ruminative in nature (vitakka-carita). A big form, as object of concentration, is suitable for yogis who have a bewildered nature (moha-carita). An external form of good colour is suitable for yogis who are irritable by nature (dosa-carita). An external form of bad colour is suitable for yogis who have a strong inclination towards sensuous desire (rāga-carita).

These mind masteries were taught by the Buddha out of his own experience. As a matter of fact, he had practised them innumerable times. To some people outside the Buddha’s teaching, an indefinite object can be quite daunting to be taken as a proper object of concentration, for an indefinite object may be as vast as the entire physical setting of the world of living things. As for the Buddha the extent of the object of concentration is infinite. Nothing whatever can therefore daunt the Buddha’s mind. In discoursing on the eight mind masteries to Ven. Ānanda, the Buddha intended to let Ven. Ānanda understand the fearless nature of the Buddha.

“Ānanda,” the Buddha continued, “the Realised One, who has dwelt in the eight mind masteries of such a nature and has emerged from them, has no fear or dread at all. That being so, how could anyone say that the Realised One was afraid of Māra who came to him alone? Ānanda, in relinquishing the life-maintaining mental process, the Realised One did so fearlessly, with mindfulness and clear comprehension.”

These words occur in the Miscellaneous Teaching on the Dhamma (Pakiṇṇaka-dhamma-desanā) which was not recited at the Great Council but was quoted by the commentaries.

The Eight Stages of Release

Then the Buddha without any pause continued to the next subject, on the eight stages of release (vimokkha), in his discourse to Ven. Ānanda thus: “Ānanda, there are eight stages of release (vimokkha). These are:

1. Having attained absorption (jhāna) by contemplating on one’s own body, the yogi contemplates external forms as meditation objects (kasiṇa). This is the first release.

2. Not taking any internal object, without contemplating on one’s own body, the yogi contemplates external forms as meditation objects (kasiṇa). This the second release.

3. The yogi contemplates the brightness and clarity (subha) of the object of contemplation. This is the third release.

4. Having completely transcended all forms of perception to corporeality (rūpa-saññā), all forms of consciousness arising out of contact between sense and sense object (paṭigha-saññā), having disappeared and completely disregarding all other forms of multifarious consciousness (nānatta-saññā), the yogi, contemplating infinite space, achieves concentration on that object of contemplation, and dwells in the sphere of endless space (ākāsānañcāyatana-jhāna). This is the fourth release.

5. Having clearly advanced beyond the absorption on endless space, the yogi, contemplating that consciousness is infinite, achieves concentration on that object of contemplation, and dwells in the sphere of endless consciousness (viññāṇañcāyatana-jhāna). This is the fifth release.

6. Having clearly advanced beyond the absorption on endless consciousness, the yogi, [1037] contemplating that nothing is there, achieves concentration on that object of contemplation, and dwells in the sphere of nothingness (ākiñcaññāyatana-jhāna). This is the sixth release.

7. Having clearly advanced beyond the absorption on nothingness, the yogi, contemplating the subtle consciousness, achieves concentration on it, and dwells in the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception (nevasaññā-nāsaññāyatana-jhāna). This is the seventh release.

8. Having clearly advanced beyond the absorption of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, the yogi achieves and dwells in sustained attainment of cessation in which all forms of consciousness and sensation cease. This is the eighth release.

Ānanda, these are the eight stages of release.”

Release (vimokkha) means a total freedom from hindrances and opposing mental states that shroud the mind, a cultured state of ecstatic bliss which may be likened to the peaceful repose of a child on his father’s chest. This freedom or release lasts as long as the absorption (jhāna) lasts. Release also means unity of mind and object of meditation unhampered by any other thought.

Of those eight releases the first three are the absorption (jhāna) of the fine material sphere (rūpāvacara-jhāna). Of these three, the first release, the meditation on the fine material sphere, is achieved by concentrating on internal as well as external objects. The second, the absorption of the fine material sphere, is achieved by concentrating on external objects. The third is achieved by concentrating on material objects (kasiṇa) of very clear and pure colour, namely: dark blue, yellow, red and white. While the yogi is dwelling in this third stage of meditation, he does not have such a thought as: “This is exquisite,” and yet since his mind is fixed on exquisite objects, it appears as if he is entertaining such a thought. Hence the text describes it: “He is concentrating on what is exquisite.”

The four successive releases: the fourth, the fifth, the sixth, and the seventh, refer to the four meditations (jhāna) on the formless realms (arūpa-jhāna). These four formless realms are called releases because they are entirely free from perceptions of corporeality, and also because the yogi’s mind is in complete unity with the object of meditation, unhampered by any other thought.

The eighth release refers to the attainment of cessation (nirodha-samāpatti.) It is called release because while one dwells in the attainment of cessation, all mental phenomena cease, beginning with perception and sensation, that is, the mental process is suspended altogether, and along with it, mind-born corporeality also ceases, so that one is totally free from being in a conditioned state. This cessation of the four mental aggregates and mind-born corporeality lasts during the attainment of cessation.

For those persons who find pleasure in the suffering round of rebirth and are satisfied with their sentient existence in the three spheres, release is a dreadful idea. As for the Buddha, it was a very pleasant thing to dwell on release. He has no fear to experience release. The Buddha discoursed on the eight stages of release to let Ven. Ānanda understand the fearless nature of the Buddha.

“Ānanda,” the Buddha continued, “the Realised One who has dwelt in the eight stages of release and has emerged from them, has no fear or dread at all. That being so, how could anyone say that the Realised One was afraid of Māra who came to him alone? Ānanda, in relinquishing the life-maintaining mental process, the Realised One did so fearlessly, with mindfulness and clear comprehension.”

These also are the Buddha’s words to Ven. Ānanda, as contained in the Miscellaneous Teaching on the Dhamma (Pakiṇṇaka-dhamma-desanā).

The Relinquishing of the Life-Process

Having discoursed on the eight stages of release, the Buddha continued his discourse without letting Ven. Ānanda say anything: [1038] “Ānanda, on one occasion, in the eighth week after the Awakening, I was staying at the foot of the Goatherd’s Banyan tree, near the bank of the River Nerañjarā, in Uruveḷa forest. At that time Māra the Wicked One approached me and standing at a certain place, said this to me: ‘Let the Fortunate One realize Parinibbāna now, let the Fortunate One pass away! Venerable sir, it is time now for the Fortunate One to pass away.’

Ānanda, when this was said, I replied to Māra the Wicked One thus: ‘Wicked One, I shall not pass away so long as my disciples, the male monastics, are not yet well versed in the doctrine, not yet well disciplined in the threefold training, not yet sure of themselves in the righteousness of their conduct, not yet possessed of wide knowledge, not yet able to memorize the teaching, not yet able to practise according to the teaching leading to the supermundane, not yet able to take up the proper practice, not yet settled in their practice; not yet able to expound, to set forth, to show, to establish, to elucidate, to analyse, or to make evident the teacher’s doctrine that they have learnt; so long as they are not yet able to thoroughly refute on righteous grounds other doctrines as may arise, and expound the wonderful teaching.

Wicked One, so long as my female monastics … my lay male disciples … Wicked One, so long as my female lay-disciples are not yet well versed in the doctrine, not yet well disciplined in the threefold training, not yet sure of themselves in the righteousness of their conduct, not yet possessed of wide knowledge, not yet able to memorize the teaching, not yet able to practise according to the teaching leading to the supermundane, not yet able to take up the proper practice, not yet settled in their practice; not yet able to expound, to set forth, to show, to establish, to elucidate, to analyse, or to make evident the teacher’s doctrine that they have learnt; so long as they are not yet able to thoroughly refute on righteous grounds other doctrines as may arise, and expound the wonderful teaching. Wicked One, I shall not pass away so long as this teaching of mine, which is the practice of purity, is not yet sufficiently developed among the disciples, not yet prosperous, widespread, having reached the multitudes, and become renowned, to the extent that it can be thoroughly made known by wise Devas and humans.’

Ānanda, Māra the Wicked One just now came to me at the Cāpāla Shrine, and standing at a suitable distance, again addressed me thus: ‘Venerable sir, let the Fortunate One realize Parinibbāna now, let the Fortunate One pass away! Venerable sir, it is time now for the Fortunate One to pass away. Venerable sir, the Fortunate One has said this to me: “Wicked One, I shall not pass away so long as my disciples, the male monastics, are not yet well versed in the doctrine, not yet well disciplined in the threefold training, not yet sure of themselves in the righteousness of their conduct, not yet possessed of wide knowledge, not yet able to memorize the teaching, not yet able to practise according to the teaching leading to the supermundane, not yet able to take up the proper practice, not yet settled in their practice; not yet able to expound, to set forth, to show, to establish, to elucidate, to analyse, or to make evident the teacher’s doctrine that they have learnt; so long as they are not yet able to thoroughly refute on righteous grounds other doctrines as may arise, and expound the wonderful teaching.

Wicked One, so long as my disciples, the female monastics … my lay male disciples … Wicked One, so long as my disciples, the female lay-disciples are not yet well versed in the doctrine, not yet well disciplined in the threefold training, not yet sure of themselves in the righteousness of their conduct, not yet possessed of wide knowledge, not yet able to memorize the teaching, not yet able to practise according to the teaching leading to the supermundane, not yet able to take up the proper practice, not yet settled in their practice; not yet able to expound, to set forth, to show, to establish, to elucidate, to analyse, or to make evident the teacher’s doctrine that they have learnt; so long as they are not yet able to thoroughly refute on righteous grounds other doctrines as may arise, and expound the wonderful teaching. Wicked One, I shall not pass away so long as this teaching of mine, which is the practice of purity, is not yet sufficiently developed among the disciples, not yet prosperous, widespread, having reached the multitudes, and become renowned, to the extent that it can be thoroughly made known by wise Devas and humans.”

Venerable sir, now that the Fortunate One’s teaching, which is the practice of purity, is sufficiently established among the disciples, is now prosperous, widespread, has reached the multitudes, and is renowned, to the extent that it [1039] can be thoroughly made known by wise Devas and humans. Venerable sir, let the Fortunate One realize Parinibbāna now, let the Fortunate One pass away! Venerable sir, it is now time for the Fortunate One to pass away.’

Ānanda, on being requested thus, I said to Māra: ‘Wicked One, don’t you worry: the Parinibbāna of the Realised One will not be long in coming, three months hence the Realised One will realize Parinibbāna.’ Ānanda, today at the Cāpāla shrine, the Realised One has decided, mindfully and with deliberation, to give up the life-maintaining mental process three months from now.” Thus the Buddha related the whole story about the relinquishing of the life-maintaining mental process.

Ven. Ānanda Entreats the Buddha

When the Buddha said this, Ven. Ānanda entreated him thus: “Venerable sir, may the Fortunate One, for the welfare of mankind, for the benefit, well-being and happiness of Devas and humans, out of compassion for the world, live for the maximum lifespan! May the Fortunate One live for the maximum lifespan!”

Thereupon the Buddha said: “Enough, Ānanda, do not implore the Realised One now. The time for such entreaty is past.” For a second time Ven. Ānanda repeated his entreaty and the Buddha rejected it in the same words. When for a third time he repeated his entreaty the Buddha said to him: “Do you have faith in the Awakening knowledge (Bodhi-ñāṇa) of the Realised One?”

“Yes, I do, venerable sir.”

“Why, then, in spite of your belief, do you persist in entreating me thrice?”

“Venerable sir, I have been told by the Fortunate One himself thus: ‘Ānanda, whoever has cultivated, practised, used as a medium, taken as his basis, kept up, mastered, and fully developed the four bases of psychic power (iddhi-pāda) could, if he so wished, live for the maximum lifespan or even beyond the maximum lifespan. Ānanda, the Realised One has cultivated, practised, used as a medium, taken as his basis, kept up, mastered, and fully developed the four bases of psychic power. Therefore, Ānanda, the Realised One could, if he so wished, live for the maximum lifespan or even beyond the maximum lifespan.’ Venerable sir, it is on account of those words of the Fortunate One that I make the appeal thrice.”

“Do you believe that, Ānanda?”

“Yes, venerable sir, I do.”

“Ānanda, although the Realised One thus gave clear hints, you failed to grasp them. It never occurred to you to entreat the Fortunate One: ‘May the Fortunate One, for the welfare of mankind, for the benefit, well-being and happiness of Devas and humans, out of compassion for the world, live for the maximum lifespan! May the Fortunate One live for the maximum lifespan!’ Therefore, Ānanda, this failure to entreat me then is your doing, your own omission. Ānanda, if you had entreated me then, the Realised One might have refused the entreaty twice but might have acceded to it on the third time. Therefore, Ānanda, this failure to entreat me then is your own doing, your own omission.

Similar Instances of Omission

Ānanda, on one occasion, I was staying on the mountain abode on the Gijjhakūṭa hill [1040] in Rājagaha. At that time I said to you: ‘Ānanda, pleasant is the city of Rājagaha. Ānanda, pleasant is the Gijjhakūṭa hill. Ānanda, whosoever has cultivated, practised, used as a vehicle, taken as his basis, kept up, mastered, and fully developed the four bases of psychic power (iddhi-pāda), could, if he so wished, live for the maximum lifespan or even beyond the maximum lifespan. Ānanda, the Realised One has cultivated, practised, used as a vehicle, taken as his basis, kept up, mastered, and fully developed the four bases of psychic power. Therefore, Ānanda, the Realised One could, if he so wished, live for the maximum lifespan or even beyond the maximum lifespan.’

Ānanda, although the Realised One thus gave clear hints, you failed to grasp them. It never occurred to you to entreat the Fortunate One: ‘May the Fortunate One, for the welfare of mankind, for the benefit, well-being and happiness of Devas and men, out of compassion for the world, live for the maximum lifespan! May the Fortunate One live for the maximum lifespan!’ Ānanda, if you had entreated me then, the Realised One might have refused the entreaty twice but might have acceded to it on the third time. Therefore, this failure to entreat me then is your own doing, your own omission.

Ānanda, on one occasion I was dwelling at the foot of the Gotama Banyan tree in Rājagaha … I was dwelling at the Corapapāta cliff near Rājagaha … I was dwelling in the Sattapaṇṇi cave on the side of Vebhāra mountain near Rājagaha … I was at Kāḷasilā at the side of the Isigili mountain near Rājagaha … at the Ebony Grove in the Sappasoṇḍika mountain range near Rājagaha … at the Tapodārāma monastery in Rājagaha … at Veḷuvana Kalandakanivāpa … at the Mango Grove of Jīvaka … at the Migadāya Wood in Maddakucchi near Rājagaha … Ānanda, while I was dwelling at those places, too, I said to you: ‘Ānanda, Rājagaha is pleasant … Gotama banyan tree is pleasant … Corapapāta cliff is pleasant … Sattapaṇṇi cave is pleasant … Kāḷasilā at the side of Isigili mountain is pleasant … the Ebony Grove in the Sappasoṇḍika mountain range is pleasant … Tapodārāma monastery is pleasant … Veḷuvana Kalandakanivāpa is pleasant … the Mango Grove of Jīvaka is pleasant … the Migadāya Wood in Maddakucchi is pleasant. Ānanda, whoever has cultivated, practised, used as a vehicle, taken as his basis, kept up, mastered, and fully developed the four bases of psychic power could, if he so wished, live for the maximum lifespan or even beyond the maximum lifespan. Ānanda, the Realised One has cultivated, practised, used as a vehicle, taken as his basis, kept up, mastered, and fully developed the four bases of psychic power. Therefore, Ānanda, the Realised One could, if he so wished, live for the maximum lifespan or even beyond the maximum lifespan.’

Ānanda, although the Realised One thus gave clear hints, you failed to grasp them. It never occurred to you to entreat the Fortunate One: ‘May the Fortunate One, for the welfare of mankind, for the benefit, well-being and happiness of Devas and men, out of compassion for the world, live for the maximum lifespan! May the Fortunate One live for the maximum lifespan!’ Ānanda, if you had entreated me then, the Realised One might have refused the entreaty twice but might have acceded to it on the third time. Therefore, Ānanda, this failure to entreat me then is your own doing, your own omission.

Ānanda, on one occasion, while I was living at the Udena Shrine in Vesālī, there too, I said to you: ‘Ānanda, Vesālī is pleasant. The Udena shrine is pleasant. Ānanda, [1041] whoever has cultivated, practised, used as a vehicle, taken as his basis, kept up, mastered, and fully developed the four bases of psychic power could, if he so wished, live for the maximum lifespan or even beyond the maximum lifespan. Ānanda, the Realised One has cultivated, practised, used as a vehicle, taken as his basis, kept up, mastered, and fully developed the four bases of psychic power. Therefore, Ānanda, the Realised One could, if he so wished, live for the maximum lifespan or even beyond the maximum lifespan.’

Ānanda, although the Realised One thus gave clear hints, you failed to grasp them. It never occurred to you to entreat the Fortunate One: ‘May the Fortunate One, for the welfare of mankind, for the benefit, well-being and happiness of Devas and humans, out of compassion for the world, live for the maximum lifespan! May the Fortunate One live for the maximum lifespan!’ Ānanda, if you had entreated me then, the Realised One might have refused the entreaty twice but might have acceded to it on the third time. Therefore, Ānanda, this failure to entreat the Fortunate One then is your own doing, your own omission.

Ānanda, on one occasion, while I was staying at the Gotama Shrine in this very city of Vesālī … at the Sattamba shrine in this very city of Vesālī … at the Bahuputta shrine in this very city of Vesālī … at the Sārandada shrine in this very city of Vesālī … Ānanda, today, at the Cāpāla shrine, the Realised One has just said to you: ‘Ānanda, Vesālī is pleasant, the Cāpāla shrine is pleasant. Ānanda, whosoever has cultivated, practised, used as a vehicle, taken as his basis, kept up, mastered, and fully developed the four bases of psychic power could, if he so wished, live for the maximum lifespan or even beyond the maximum lifespan. Ānanda the Realised One has cultivated, practised, used as a vehicle, taken as his basis, kept up, mastered, and fully developed the four bases of psychic power. Therefore, Ānanda, the Realised One could, if he so wished, live for the maximum lifespan or even beyond the maximum lifespan.’

Ānanda, although the Realised One thus gave clear hints, you failed to grasp them. It never occurred to you to entreat the Fortunate One: ‘May the Fortunate One, for the welfare of mankind, for the benefit, well-being and happiness of Devas and humans, out of compassion for the world, live for the maximum lifespan! May the Fortunate One live for the maximum lifespan!’ Ānanda, if you had entreated me then, the Realised One might have refused the entreaty twice but might have acceded to it on the third time. Therefore, Ānanda, this failure to entreat the Fortunate One then is your own doing, your own omission.”

The Buddha related the fifteen previous instances of Ven. Ānanda’s failure to entreat him to continue to live. That latest occasion, the sixteenth, took place at the Cāpāla shrine. All these cases of omission were pointed out by the Buddha to attenuate the sorrow Ven. Ānanda was feeling at that time. Of course, Ven. Ānanda’s failure on all these various occasions was due to Māra’s mischief.

“Ānanda, have I not previously told you that it is in the very nature of things that we must part with those most near and dear to us somehow, even while we are living, or when death divides us, or when we are of different planes of existence? Ānanda, in this matter, how could one expect anything that has the nature of arising, of appearing, of being conditioned, and of dissolution, not to disintegrate? It is not possible for anyone to wish so.

Ānanda, the Realised One has discarded, thrown up, given up, abandoned, thrown away, and relinquished the life-maintaining mental process. And the Realised One has spoken out in no uncertain terms that the Parinibbāna of the Realised One will not be long in coming, that three months hence the Realised One will realize Parinibbāna. There is no possibility of the Realised One, for the sake of living, could go back on his word.

Come, Ānanda, let us [1042] go to the Pinnacled Hall at the Great Wood.” – “Very well, venerable sir,” said Ven. Ānanda.

37 Factors on the Side of Awakening

Then the Buddha, accompanied by Ven. Ānanda, went to the Pinnacled Hall at the Great Wood. There, he said to him: “Ānanda, go and summon all the monastics living in Vesālī to come and assemble in the Assembly Hall.” Ven. Ānanda caused all the monastics living in Vesālī to gather in the Assembly Hall. Then he went to the Buddha, made obeisance to him, and standing in a certain place, reported: “Venerable sir, the monastics are assembled. May the Fortunate One go to them as and when he wishes.”

Then the Buddha went to the Assembly Hall, took his seat prepared for him, and addressed the monastics as follows: “Monastics, the doctrines which I have perceived through path-insight and which I have expounded to you should be mastered, resorted to, cultivated, put to constant practice. If you master, resort to, cultivate and constantly practise these doctrines, this teaching, which is the practice of purity, will endure long and perpetuate itself, thus making for the welfare of mankind, the preservation of the world, the benefit, well-being and happiness of Devas and humans.

These doctrines are:

1. The four methods of steadfast mindfulness (sati-paṭṭhāna).

2. The four supreme efforts (sammapadāna).

3. The four bases of psychic power (iddhi-pāda).

4. The five faculties (indriya).

5. The five powers (bala).

6. The seven factors of awakening (bojjhaṅga).

7. The noble eightfold path (ariya-magga).

Monastics, these 37 doctrines constituents of Awakening, which I have perceived through path-insight and expounded to you, should be mastered, resorted to, cultivated, and put into constant practice. If you master, resort to, cultivate and constantly practise these doctrines, this teaching, which is the practice of purity, will endure long and perpetuate itself, thus making for the welfare of mankind, the preservation of the world, the benefit, well-being and happiness of Devas and humans.”

Then the Buddha further said to the monastics: “Now, look monastics, I exhort you: Decay is inherent in all compounded things, physical or mental. With mindfulness and diligence strive towards the goal of liberation. The Parinibbāna of the Realised One will take place before long; three months hence the Realised One will realize Parinibbāna.”

Having said this, the Buddha further spoke these words in verse:

“My age is now quite ripe having, turned eighty. Only a little just three months of my life remains. I shall have to depart, leaving you behind. I have made a refuge of myself.

Monastics, never be forgetful, be possessed of mindfulness, be pure in morality. Keep your mind collected, think right, and guard your mind ever closely against defilements.

Monastics, in this teaching of the Doctrine and Discipline he who remains holding fast to the good doctrine will be able to get rid of the cycle of rebirths and make an end of all suffering (dukkha).” [1043]

Farewell to Vesālī

Then the Buddha, rearranging his robes in the morning, took his alms bowl and double robe and entered the city of Vesālī for the alms round. After the alms round, after having had his meal, he left the place of his meal. On leaving the place, he turned around and looked back towards Vesālī, like a tusker looking back. Then he said to Ven. Ānanda, “Ānanda, this will be the last time the Realised One looks on Vesālī. Come, Ānanda, let us go to Bhaṇḍa village.” – “Very well, venerable sir,” said Ven. Ānanda.

In this matter, the statement about the Buddha: “Turning around to look back,” needs some comment. The Buddha’s anatomy is unique among human beings. Ordinary people have bones joined together by touching at the ends. Paccekabuddhas have bones joined by hooks formed at the end of each bone. The Buddha’s bone structure is a set of chain-links. With the exception of the arms, which consist of twelve big joints and fingers and toes with smaller joints, all other bones are joined as chain-links. That is why the Buddha is endowed with the physical might equal to the strength of 10,000 million tuskers or that of 100,000 million men of ordinary strength.

The bone structure being of chain-links, the Buddha’s neck cannot turn back by itself alone. Therefore, when the Buddha wants to look back, he has to turn back the whole body, just as an elephant does.

Although it was the Buddha’s intention to turn around to look back, due to the intervention of the guardian spirit of the great earth, that act was not actually carried out, for the great earth, as if unable to bear the sight of the Supreme Being turning around, rotated itself so that the Buddha stood with his person facing Vesālī. The great earth intervened as if it were saying: “Great Lord, your fulfilling of the perfections has been unique. So why should there be the need for the Fortunate One to trouble himself to turn around physically just to look back as with other ordinary people?” In any case, the expression that: “The Fortunate One turned around to look back like a tusker,” was used with reference to the Buddha’s intention to do so.

It might be asked: “Why was Vesālī alone mentioned as the place the Fortunate One has his last look at, and not other places, such as Sāvatthī, Rājagaha, Nāḷanda, Pāṭali village, Koṭi village and Nātika village where he had made his last visit? Did the Fortunate One not look back on those places as well?”

The answer is no. If the Buddha were to look back on these various places, the uniqueness of the occasion would be lost.

There is also another reason: Vesālī was a doomed city. It was going to be destroyed after three years from the Buddha’s last visit there. The Buddha saw that if he made a turning around to look back like a noble tusker at Vesālī, that place would be commemorated by the Licchavī princes as: “The Noble Tusker’s Turning-Around Shrine” which would bring great benefits to them for a long time. That was the object of the Buddha’s decision to turn around to look back on Vesālī.

The Four Principles

Then the Buddha, accompanied by his large company of monastics, visited Bhaṇḍu village and took up his residence there. During his sojourn there he discoursed to the monastics as follows: “Monastics, it is through not having proper understanding and penetrative knowledge of four principles that I, as well as yourselves, have had to fare along the long course of the round of existences (Saṁsāra), going through from existence to existence. And the four principles are as follows:

1. Monastics, it is through not having proper understanding and penetrative knowledge of the noble morality, the virtue of the noble one (ariya-sīla) that [1044] I, as well as yourselves, have had to fare along the long course of the round of existences, going through from existence to existence.

2. Monastics, it is through not having proper understanding and penetrative knowledge of the noble concentration (ariya-samādhi) …

3. Monastics, it is through not having proper understanding and penetrative knowledge of the noble wisdom (ariya-paññā) …

4. Monastics, it is though not having proper understanding and penetrative knowledge of the noble liberation (ariya-vimutti) that I, as well as yourselves, have had to fare along the long course of the round of existences, going through existence to existence.

Monastics, I have properly understood and gained penetrative knowledge of the noble morality; I have properly understood and gained penetrative knowledge of the noble concentration … of the noble wisdom … of the noble liberation. Craving for existence has been completely eradicated so that craving which drags one to renewed existence is extinct in me. Now there will be no more rebirth.”

Then the Buddha further said to the monastics in verse:

“Monastics, Buddha Gotama, of vast following, has correctly known these principles of supreme morality, concentration, wisdom and liberation. Having gained penetrative knowledge of them through path-insight, he has out of compassion expounded them to the monastics.

The teacher of Devas and humans, endowed with the fivefold eye of wisdom, who has quelled all the fires of the defilements, has made an end of all suffering (dukkha) in himself as well as in his Arahat disciples.”

During his sojourn at Bhaṇḍu village the Buddha, considering his approaching death, discoursed to the monastics of the repeated theme as follows: “Such is morality, such is concentration, such is wisdom. Concentration developed through morality is efficacious and productive. Wisdom developed through concentration is efficacious and productive. The mind that is developed through wisdom is thoroughly liberated from the moral taints: the taint of sense-desire, the taint of craving for continued existence, and the taint of ignorance of the four noble truths.”

The Four Great Authorities

Then after staying at Bhaṇḍu village for as long as he wished, the Buddha said to Ven. Ānanda: “Come, Ānanda, let us go to Hatthi village, to Amba village, to Jamba village, and thence to the town of Bhoga.”

“Very well, venerable sir,” said Ven. Ānanda, and the Buddha, accompanied by a large following of monastics, arrived at the town of Bhoga, where he dwelled at the Ānanda shrine. During his sojourn there, the Buddha discoursed to the monastics on the four great authorities, which are the principles to assess the doctrines that are being taught by persons of high esteem:

1. “Monastics, in this teaching, if a monastic should say thus: ‘Friends, I have heard this exposition from the mouth of the Fortunate One, such and such is the Discourses (Dhamma); such and such is the Discipline (Vinaya); such and such is the teaching of the Buddha.’

Monastics, the words of that monastic should not be readily accepted or readily rejected. The words and phrases stated by him and attributed to the Buddha should be carefully noted. They should be collated with the Discourses and compared with the Discipline.

If, on collation with the Discourses and comparison with the Discipline, the words and phrases, as stated by the monastic, do not agree with the Discourses or are not in line with the Discipline, then it must be concluded that: “This certainly is not what the Fortunate One said. It is something wrongly learnt by the monastic.’ And concluding thus, monastics, those words should be rejected and ignored. [1045]

If, on the other hand, the words and phrases, as stated by the monastic, on being collated with the Discourses and compared with the Discipline, are found to agree with the Discourses and are in line with the Discipline, then it must be concluded that: ‘This certainly is what the Fortunate One said. It is something correctly learnt by the monastic.’ Monastics, remember well this first principle regarding assertions attributed to a great authority.

2. And then, monastics, in the teaching, if a monastic should say thus: ‘Here is such and such monastery where the community of monastics has an elder in charge. I have heard this exposition from that particular community of monastics: such and such is the Discourses (Dhamma); such and such is the Discipline (Vinaya); such and such is the teaching of the Buddha.’

Monastics, the words of that monastic should not be readily accepted or readily rejected. The words and phrases stated by him and attributed to the Saṅgha of a certain monastery should be carefully noted. They should be collated with the Discourses, and compared with the Discipline.

If, on collation with the Discourses and comparison with the Discipline, the words and phrases, as stated by the monastic, do not agree with the Discourses or are not in line with the Discipline, then it must be concluded that: ‘This certainly is not what the Fortunate One said. It is something wrongly learnt by the monastic.’ And concluding thus, monastics, those words should be rejected and ignored.

If, on the other hand, the words and phrases as stated by the monastic, on being collated with the Discourses and compared with the Discipline, are found to agree with the Discourses and are in line with the Discipline, then it must be concluded that: ‘This certainly is what the Fortunate One said, it is something correctly learnt by the monastic.’ Monastics, remember this second principle regarding assertions attributed to a great authority.

3. And then, monastics, in the teaching, if a monastic should say thus: ‘There is such and such monastery where many elders of wide learning who have memorized the Pāḷi text, who abide by the Doctrine and the Discipline, and who are thoroughly versed in the Monastic Rules (Pātimokkha), I have heard this exposition from these elders themselves: such and such is the Discourses (Dhamma); such and such is the Discipline (Vinaya); such and such is the teaching of the Buddha.’

Monastics, the words of that monastic should not be readily accepted or readily rejected. The words and phrases stated by him and attributed to the elders should be carefully noted. They should be collated with the Discourses and compared with the Discipline.

If, on collation with the Discourses and comparison with the Discipline, the words and phrases, as stated by the monastics, do not agree with the Discourses or are not in line with the Discipline, then it must be concluded that: ‘This certainly is not what the Fortunate One said. It is something wrongly learnt by the monastic.’ And concluding thus, monastics, these words should be rejected and ignored.

If, on the other hand, the words and phrases as stated by the monastic, on being collated with the Discourses and compared with the Discipline, are found to agree with the Discourses and are in line with the Discipline, then it must be concluded that: ‘This certainly is what the Fortunate One said. It is something correctly learnt by the monastic.’ Monastics, remember well this third principle regarding assertions attributed to a great authority.

4. And then, monastics, in this teaching, if a monastic should say thus: ‘There is a certain elder of wide learning who has memorized the Pāḷi texts, who abides by the Doctrine and the Discipline, and who is thoroughly versed in the Monastic Rules. I have heard this exposition from that monastic himself: such and such is the Discourses (Dhamma); such and such is the Discipline (Vinaya); such and such is the teaching of the Buddha.’

Monastics, the words of that monastic should not be readily accepted or readily rejected. [1046] The words and phrases stated by him and attributed to the learned elder should be carefully noted. They should be collated with the Discourses and compared with the Discipline.

If, on collation with the Discourses and comparison with the Discipline, the words and phrases, as stated by the monastics, do not agree with the Discourses or are not in line with the Discipline, then it must be concluded that: ‘This certainly is not what the Fortunate One said. It is something wrongly learnt by the monastic.’ And concluding thus, monastics, these words should be rejected and ignored.

If, on the other hand, the words and phrases, as stated by the monastic, are in line with the Discourses and with the Discipline, then it must be concluded that: ‘This certainly is what the Fortunate One said. It is something correctly learned by the monastic.’ Monastics, remember well this fourth principle regarding assertions attributed to a great authority. Monastics, remember well these four principles regarding assertions attributed to the great authorities.”

Miscellaneous Points on the Four Great Authorities

On this subject of the four great authorities, the commentary draws the attention of the reader to miscellaneous points touching on it. A brief note follows. Herein:

1. There are the four directive principles concerning the four great authorities in the Collection of the Long Discourses (Dīgha-nikāya).

2. Four directive principles on the subject as taught in the Great Division (Vin Mahā-vagga).

3. Four types of answers corresponding to four types of questions called the four answers (vyākaraṇa).

4. The four Disciplines (Vinaya).

5. The three Great Councils.

6. The four great authorities as taught in the discourses. These are what has been described above.

7. The four great authorities as taught in the Discipline (Vin Mahā-vagga, 6).

Four directive principles are laid down by the Buddha regarding what sort of medicinal preparation is proper for monastics:

1. Monastics, a certain drug is not specifically mentioned by me as improper for use by monastics, yet if it tends towards impropriety and rules out any possibility of propriety, in the light of the Vinaya rules, then consider it as being improper for use.

2. Monastics, a certain drug is not specifically mentioned by me as improper for use by monastics, and if, in the light of the Vinaya rules, it tends towards propriety and rules out any possibility of its impropriety, then consider it as being proper for use.

3. Monastics, a certain drug is not specifically mentioned by me as proper for use by monastics, and if it tends towards impropriety and rules out any possibility of propriety in the light of the Vinaya rules, then consider it as being improper of use.

4. Monastics, a certain drug is not specifically mentioned by me as proper for use by monastics, and if it tends towards impropriety and rules out any possibility of propriety in the light of the Vinaya rules, then consider it as being improper of use by monastics, and if it tends towards propriety and rules out any possibility of its impropriety in the light of the Vinaya rules, then consider it as being proper for use.

There are four types of answers to match the four types of questions: [1047]

1. A straight question is answered by a categorical statement, e.g. if the question is: “Is the eye impermanent?” the appropriate answer is: “Yes, the eye is impermanent.”

2. A question requiring an analysis to answer, e.g. “Is the eye the only thing that is impermanent?” The answer needs an analysis: “The eye is not the only thing that is impermanent: the ear also is impermanent; the tongue also is impermanent; etc.”

3. A question to be replaced by question, e.g. “Is the ear to be regarded as being the same as the eye? Is the eye to be regarded as being the same as the ear?” The appropriate reply is: “In what sense is this question put?” Then if the inquirer says: “In the sense of seeing: is the ear capable of seeing as the eye is?” The answer then is: “No, it is not.” If again, the inquirer says: “In respect of its impermanence: is the ear the same as the eye is?” The answer then is: “Yes, it is.”

4. The type of question that is ignored, e.g. to believers in self (atta), there is life (jīva), body (sarīra), which are mere names but which do not exist in the ultimate sense. Therefore if the question is: “Is life the same as the body?” the proper answer is silence because one understands that the Buddha himself ignores such a question. The question is of the nature of talking about the son of a barren woman, which is absurd.

The four guides (vinaya).

1. Doctrine (sutta) here means the Three Baskets (Tipiṭaka).

2. What is in line with Doctrine (suttānuloma) means the four great authorities (mahāpadesa) described in the Vinaya and the four great authorities described in the Discourses.

3. The words of the teachers (ācariya-vāda) means the miscellaneous expositions in elucidation of the doctrines of the Buddha that were made even during his lifetime at different places. Since they explain the Pāḷi texts, they were also called commentaries (aṭṭhakathā). At the great Councils, the elders recited the Pāḷi first and at the end of it, they prescribed the respective commentaries to each division of the texts as the regular syllabus for elucidation. These learned sayings which were miscellaneous discourses as well as commentaries, being written by learned teachers, come to be known also as The words of the teachers (ācariya-vāda).

These learned observations or treatises, which are referred to by three different names, which are The words of the teachers (ācariya-vāda), commentaries (aṭṭhakathā), miscellaneous teachings (pakiṇṇaka-desanā), were carried by Ven. Mahinda to Śrī Laṅkā. The Śrī Laṅkā elders translated them into Sinhalese to ensure for the Sinhalese monastics the tradition against doctrines that might be introduced by other sects later. Ven. Mahā Buddhaghosa studied the Sinhalese commentaries (aṭṭhakathā), the root miscellanany (mūḷa-pakiṇṇaka), cleared up repetitive statements and condensed them wherever suitable, classified them under suitable headings which were appropriate to the Baskets, elucidating them wherever necessary, and thereby produced a new commentary in Māgadhī, adding the traditional views held by the elders (ācariya-vāda) which came to be called “own views’ (attano mati), wherever necessary. Thus, the words of the teachers (ācariya-vāda), the third of the four guides, for practical purposes as used today, refers to this new commentary.

4. Own views (attano mati) means considered opinions held by elders after following the principles contained in the Doctrine, what is in line with Doctrine and the words of the teachers. Own views (attano mati) is also known as the traditional views held by the elders (ācariya-vāda). Thus these four guides which are the Doctrine, what is in line with Doctrine, the words of the teachers and own views should be noted.

The three great Buddhist councils.

1. The first great council of 500 Arahats headed by Ven. Mahā Kassapa.

2. The second great council of 7,000 Arahats headed by Ven. Mahā Yasa.

3. The third great council of 1,000 Arahats headed by Ven. Mahā Moggaliputta.

These are the three great official Buddhist Councils. [1048] First, remember the four great authorities as taught in the Discourses, the four great authorities as taught in the Vinaya, the four types of questions and answers, the four guides and the three great official councils.

Then apply them to practical problems thus:

1. If a monastic says: “This is the doctrine, this is the Vinaya, this is the Buddha’s teaching,” citing the authority of the Buddha, or of the Saṅgha, or of a number of elders, or a certain elder. To decide the veracity of his statement, apply the test of the four great authorities as taught in the Discourses: only if the statement accords with these four great authorities, the statement should be taken as true. Otherwise it must be regarded as mere hearsay, a case of irresponsible talk.

2. Where a certain problem arises as to whether a certain thing is proper for a monastic or not, the test is the four great authorities as taught in the Great Division (Vin Mahā-vagga). The commentary on the Great Division should be consulted for detailed information on the subject. If, on examining the subject of controversy or doubt in the light of the four great authorities taught in the Basket of Discipline (Vinaya-piṭaka), it tends to agree with the rules, it should be accepted as being proper; otherwise it should be considered as being improper.

3. If a question on the doctrine arises, as illustrated above, the answer should be appropriate to the type of question taught as the four types of questions.

4. Of the four guides, if the assertion by someone is part of the Discourses (Sutta-piṭaka), as contained in the Three Baskets (Tipiṭaka) approved at the councils, the statement should not be rejected, for rejection of the Discourses amounts to the rejection of the Buddha himself. If the assertion is what is in line with Doctrine (suttānuloma) statement, it should be collated with the Discourses, or with the Three Baskets. If it agrees with the Discourses, it should be accepted otherwise it should be rejected. As regards the traditional views held by the elders (ācariya-vāda) or the miscellaneous exposition, there is the possibility of the commentary not conforming to the Three Baskets due to slackness. Therefore, the traditional views held by the elders should be collated with the Three Baskets. Only if it agrees with the Baskets should it then be accepted; otherwise it should be rejected as something carelessly said. Own views (attano mati), or own opinion, is the weakest of authorities. It is to be accepted only if it accords with the Three Baskets.

5. If someone quotes a passage as being part of the Pāḷi which had been approved by the Councils, it must conform to the texts approved at the three great councils. If it is not part of the Pāḷi text approved at the three great councils, it is to be regarded as spurious.

While the Buddha was staying at the Ānanda shrine, in the town of Bhoga also, being mindful of his approaching passing, he exhorted the monastics, where there was occasion to do so, in the following words:

“Such is morality; such is concentration; such is wisdom. Concentration developed through morality is efficacious and productive. Wisdom developed through concentration is efficacious and productive. The mind that is developed through wisdom is thoroughly liberated from the moral pollutants: the pollutant of sense desire, the pollutant of craving for continued existence, and the pollutant of ignorance of the four noble truths.”